The residents of Upper Mustang call themselves Lo-pa (literally "people of Lo"). They speak a Tibetan dialect distinct from both standard Tibetan and the Nepali language used in the rest of the country. Though officially Nepali citizens, the Lo-pa historically oriented themselves culturally and economically toward Tibet – Lhasa was their commercial centre, and the salt trade that supported Upper Mustang's economy for centuries ran north, not south.
Dress is distinctly Tibetan: men and women wear the chuba, a heavy wraparound robe tied at the waist with a sash. Festival dress includes elaborate turquoise and coral jewellery, and headdresses that identify the wearer's village of origin. The headdresses worn by women at the Tiji Festival are extraordinary objects – some are family heirlooms centuries old.
Upper Mustang has an exceptional density of monasteries relative to its small population. Lo Manthang alone has four active gompas: Thubchen, Jhampa, Chodey, and Choprang. The surrounding plateau has significant sites at Tsarang, Ghiling, Ghar Gompa (one of the oldest in the region, predating the Kingdom of Lo), and the cave monastery complex at Luri.
The dominant lineage is the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, which has been the religious tradition of the Kingdom of Lo since the 15th century. This also explains the structure of the Tiji Festival – the Vajrakila ritual belongs to the Sakya and Nyingma tantric tradition. Monastery life here is not ceremonial – it's practical. Monks are engaged in daily prayer schedules, ritual preparation, manuscript preservation, and community ceremonies.
Upper Mustang's landscape is riddled with cave complexes – some natural, some carved from the soft conglomerate cliffs over many centuries. Researchers have documented over 10,000 caves in the Mustang region. Many contain evidence of ancient habitation, meditation retreats, and religious art dating back 2,000 to 3,000 years.
The Luri Cave Monastery contains a remarkable stupa and frescoes dating to the 14th century. The sky cave complexes near Tangmar contain ancient manuscripts, wall paintings, and mummified remains discovered by archaeologists in the 1990s and 2000s. For trekkers on the 18-day Tiji Festival Trek, these cave complexes are a major component of the experience beyond the festival itself.
Upper Mustang was a prosperous kingdom for centuries primarily because of geography: it controlled the main trade route between Tibet (salt, wool, butter) and the lowlands of Nepal and India (rice, spices, cloth). Salt caravans of yaks – sometimes hundreds of animals – passed through Lo Manthang seasonally. The King of Lo taxed these caravans, and the revenue funded monastery construction, festival preparation, and the royal household.
The salt trade collapsed after 1959 when the Tibet border closed. The impact on Upper Mustang was severe – the economic foundation of the kingdom essentially disappeared. The opening of the region to tourism in 1992 provided a new source of income. When you purchase a restricted area permit for USD 500, part of that money goes directly to the Upper Mustang Conservation and Development Project. Tourism here isn't just sightseeing – it's part of what keeps the culture alive. See also our guide to Lo Manthang's history.
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